• Giftedness: Infancy to Adolescence- A Developmental Perspective by Heidi J. Dalzell
   
• A history is provided on the development of the study of giftedness. Binet felt genius was equal to madness. Galton found genius to be inherited and contested the genius=madness link. Terman painted gifted children as superior in all ways.
   
• Infant IQ tests have not proven to be reliable indicators of IQ. Forty eight months is the earliest age at which a more accurate reading can be ascertained. Those children in the 130-140 IQ range will begin to show giftedness in some area from birth (i.e. verbal or mathematical). "The mother-infant dyad is seen as the primary instigator of the child's intellectual growth" (Dalzell, 1997, p.260). Many gifted children have early language development. Some will have trouble in preschool.
   
• Childhood brings emotional adjustment as the child begins to understand the world and separate from parents. The child, according to Erikson, must gain a sense of industry or risks feeling inferior. Gifted children tend to be "highly motivated, extremely independent, and tend to be more introverted and introspective" (Dalzell, 1998, p. 261). They often prefer to be with older children and strive for academic and social achievement. In order to get along better with others, gifted children should focus on the similarities between themselves and other children rather than the differences. Gifted children tend to be perfectionist. The most well-adjusted gifted children are often the first-born or only children from child-centered families. Underachievement is sometimes seen in these children and is a form of rebellion against the parents.
   
• Adolescence is described as "intrapsychic separation from primary love objects, changes in ego functioning due to puberty and sexuality, and developing an identity and ego-ideal" (Dalzell, 1998, p.262). The gifted adolescent is forced to choose from his/her desire for academic excellence and the desires of the peer group, which are often non-academic in nature. Some may deny their gifts or try to minimize them in the eyes of their peers.
   
• Gifted females have a more difficult time than their male counterparts. " 'Feelings of hopefulness and encouragement' increased as gifted males reached adolescence. For gifted female adolescents, self-confidence decreased" (Dalzell, 1998, p.263). The girls' desire to be connected to others will often take precedence over academic success.
  
  The Reflexive Self: A Sociological Perspective by R.F. Falk and N.B. Miller

• Robert Mead's theoretical framework of symbolic interaction is used to explain how gifted children develop a reflexive self. First, the basic nature of the self is reflexive and is defined by interaction with others. Asking one's self a question is being reflexive. Second, one evaluates one's self based on the reactions of others. Gifted children will naturally pass through the stages of development of a reflexive self more quickly than other children.
  
  
  Stages:
   
• Self-perception: The ability to transfer sensory experiences into memory to determine their source.
• Self-recognition: The ability to recognize one's self in a mirror and to use words meaningfully.

These first two stages help children realize the result of their actions and allow them to realize they are separate beings from their parents.

• Self-Efficacy: The child who is given the opportunity to try new things and succeed at them will develop properly in this stage. Self-efficacy increases as new tasks are accomplished.
   
• Self-Image: Self-Image changes as a person's role changes (i.e. from daughter to mother to spouse). Self-image can change through social interactions which also brings about a change in future behavior, which, in turn, brings about a change in self-image. Perceived responses of others and self-appraisals has more of an effect than actual evaluations of others and self-appraisals.
   
• Self-Concept: Self-Concept is more stable and less changeable and is formed in the early years of life.
   
• Self-Esteem: The person imagines how others feel about him/her and then feels positively or negatively about him or herself based on that imagined evaluation. Adolescents begin to experience views of others that conflict with their own views of themselves, which can be stressful and depressing.
   
• Self-Deception: Children use self-deception to protect their self-concept. They choose to only accept the views of others that are positive and validating.
   
• Self-Discrepancy: This is the difference between the ideal and actual self,  the difference between having goals and attaining them, or between the actual self and the moral self.